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Localised fatigue alters biomechanical strategies during locomotion in ways that are not fully captured by global kinematic descriptors. Plantar pressure distribution is a clinically accessible proxy for load-transfer behaviour across the foot-ground interface, yet fatigue-driven adaptations in regional peak pressures during barefoot running remain poorly characterised. The absence of footwear eliminates the confound of sole geometry, making barefoot conditions a mechanistically cleaner model for studying intrinsic foot loading adaptation.

To quantify region-specific changes in peak plantar pressure across heel, midfoot, and forefoot contact zones during barefoot running following a standardised controlled-fatigue protocol; to determine whether fatigue-driven load redistribution follows predictable directional patterns consistent with GRF-mediated compensation strategies.

Repeated-measures within-subjects design. Controlled fatigue protocol applied prior to each running trial using standardised treadmill loading sufficient to produce measurable perceived exertion elevation (RPE ≥6). Plantar pressures measured using validated pressure insoles at matched running velocity across pre- and post-fatigue conditions. Outcome metrics: peak regional pressure (kPa), contact area (cm²), pressure-time integral per region. Statistical analysis: paired t-tests with Bonferroni correction; effect sizes (Cohen's d) reported for all comparisons.

Fatigue induced significant region-specific increases in peak plantar pressures across all three measured zones. Forefoot loading demonstrated the largest absolute increase, consistent with a fatigue-driven shift toward toe-off compensation. Midfoot contact area increased, suggesting arch flattening under prolonged mechanical stress. Heel impulse duration decreased, indicating reduced controlled loading in early stance. These findings are consistent with fatigue-induced disruption to normal proximal-to-distal load sequencing.

Current clinical and coaching models of squat assessment are dominated by anatomical and positional descriptors — knee tracking, torso angle, lumbar position — that fail to capture force transmission efficiency, constraint-driven movement organisation, or adaptive strategy selection under progressive load. These positional frameworks treat movement faults as isolated targets rather than emergent consequences of upstream mechanical organisation, leading to corrective interventions that address symptoms rather than sources.

To propose a system-level biomechanical framework for squat assessment that prioritises force-transmission efficiency, proximal stability, and constraint-driven movement organisation over isolated positional criteria; to establish corrective sequencing logic grounded in kinematic-kinetic integration principles rather than surface observation alone.

Conceptual framework development grounded in published biomechanical literature on squat mechanics, GRF-to-segment force translation, intra-abdominal pressure, hip-knee kinematic coupling, and lumbopelvic rhythm. Joint-by-joint analysis applied systematically across squat phases. Clinical decision logic derived from load-path modelling, movement confidence theory, and kinematic-kinetic integration principles. Framework validated against published squat biomechanics datasets.

A multi-level decision framework was constructed identifying primary mechanical drivers (proximal stability, pelvic control, IAP management), secondary resultant behaviours (knee mechanics, femoral rotation), and corrective sequencing logic from proximal-to-distal. Movement patterns are classified as adaptive strategies under constraint rather than isolated faults. The framework differentiates mobility-limited, stability-limited, and load-strategy-limited squat presentations with specific corrective pathways for each.

Bilateral asymmetry in barbell squatting is typically framed as a correctable technical error in both coaching and rehabilitation literature. However, ground reaction force and three-dimensional kinematic data suggest that asymmetry may represent a protective load-management or compensatory strategy under increasing load rather than an isolated fault. The mechanisms by which asymmetry emerges, escalates, and stabilises under progressive loading have not been systematically characterised.

To evaluate unilateral load bias and asymmetrical GRF distribution during barbell squatting; to determine whether GRF asymmetry escalates with progressive loading in a predictable, directional manner; and to characterise the biomechanical phenomenon of asymmetric loading as a hidden single-leg dominance pattern.

Applied biomechanics analysis using dual force-plate GRF data and 3D kinematic capture. Outcome metrics: inter-limb GRF ratio, pelvic rotation angle (degrees), limb dominance index (LDI), and peak vertical GRF asymmetry coefficient across four progressive load conditions (50%, 65%, 75%, 85% 1RM estimate). Participants drawn from training-experienced population. Statistical analysis: repeated-measures ANOVA; linear mixed-effects modelling for load-dependent asymmetry escalation.

GRF asymmetry demonstrated load-dependent amplification with significant increases in pelvic rotation and limb dominance index at 75% and 85% load conditions relative to 50%. The “hidden single-leg squat” phenomenon was characterised and quantified — defined as a GRF asymmetry exceeding 15% between limbs sustained across ≥3 consecutive repetitions. Asymmetry directionality was consistent within individuals across loads, suggesting a stable compensatory strategy rather than random variation.

Knee abduction cues (“push knees out”) are ubiquitous in strength and rehabilitation coaching as an assumed protective strategy against knee valgus. Despite prevalence, the biomechanical consequences of forced maximal abduction — as opposed to functional lateral tracking — across a large observational sample had not been systematically evaluated using integrated GRF and kinematic analysis across multiple load levels.

To evaluate load-path efficiency, squat depth mechanics, and shear demand changes associated with forced maximal knee abduction cueing during squatting; to compare neutral versus maximally forced abduction conditions across kinematics, GRF, and depth metrics in a multi-centre observational cohort.

Multi-centre observational analysis. n=870 participants across GFFI, BodyGNTX, IIKBS, and AIHFT research sites. Neutral knee-tracking versus forced maximal abduction compared across: 3D kinematic measures, vertical and horizontal GRF, squat depth (hip crease-to-knee angle at terminal flexion), and foot-tripod stability index. Training-background stratification: general population, recreational, competitive athlete. Statistical analysis: mixed-effects ANOVA; pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni correction.

Forced maximal abduction was associated with disrupted load-path efficiency, compromised squat depth mechanics (reduced terminal flexion range by mean 8.3°), and increased anterior shear demand at the knee. Foot-tripod contact area decreased under maximal abduction, indicating medial arch loading compensations. Effects were load-dependent and more pronounced at ≥65% bodyweight loading. Over-simplified cueing models were identified as source of mechanical disadvantage rather than protection.

Hypertrophic adaptation is the dominant model for strength performance improvement, with cross-sectional area widely used as a surrogate for force-production capacity. However, neural drive efficiency — encompassing motor unit recruitment thresholds, discharge rate behaviour, and neural drive frequency — may explain a substantial proportion of between-individual performance differentiation that hypertrophy models cannot account for. The specific neural strategies that differentiate strength-dominant from explosively-trained athletes under progressive load remain insufficiently characterised.

To characterise motor unit recruitment thresholds and rate-coding strategies in strength-dominant versus explosively-trained athletes during progressive isometric loading; to determine whether neural efficiency metrics provide performance differentiation beyond what is captured by cross-sectional area and standard EMG amplitude.

Cross-sectional comparative design. Strength-dominant athletes, explosively-trained athletes, and recreationally-trained controls. Surface EMG recorded at VL, RF, and GM during progressive isometric contraction from 30% to 90% MVIC. EMG normalised to maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC). Rate-coding analysis: discharge rate variability, motor unit recruitment threshold tracking. Neuromuscular asymmetry indices calculated bilaterally. Between-group comparisons: one-way ANOVA; pairwise comparisons with effect sizes (Hedge's g).

Explosively-trained athletes demonstrated significantly earlier motor pool recruitment onset and enhanced discharge rate capacity compared to strength-dominant athletes and recreationally-trained controls. Neural differentiation was statistically independent of measured cross-sectional area — confirming neural efficiency as a distinct adaptive construct that is not explained by hypertrophic mechanisms alone. Rate-coding differentiation was most pronounced at 60–80% MVIC loading, suggesting a critical recruitment window that distinguishes neural training adaptations.

Binary movement screening tools (FMS, SFMA) produce single ordinal scores without population-stratified normative references or biomechanical domain stratification sufficient for staged clinical decision-making. The absence of a psychometrically validated multidimensional movement intelligence tool with open normative datasets represents a significant gap in applied biomechanics practice, particularly for rehabilitation-to-performance transition contexts.

To describe the architecture, domain structure, scoring logic, and clinical application of MMSx-SCAN™ v2.1; to report inter-rater reliability (ICC) across all seven biomechanical domains and the composite Movement Intelligence Index (MII, 0–100); and to publish population-stratified normative reference tables derived from the n=870 normative cohort.

Framework development grounded in biomechanical evidence across seven orthogonal assessment domains: Spinal Control, Pelvic Control, Hip Mechanics, Knee Control, Ankle-Foot Interface, Upper Kinetic Chain, and Breathing-Core Integration (+ Asymmetry Index). ICC(2,1) reliability study: n=120 participants, 5 independent MMSx-trained raters, single-session repeated assessment. Normative MII percentile tables derived from n=870 cohort stratified by training background, age group, and gender. Prescription protocol logic defined across four framework pathways (BPIT, NEEBAL, MOVE, HYBRID).

MII composite ICC(2,1) = 0.955 (95% CI: 0.944–0.968). MDC₉₅ = 6.24 MII points. Domain-level ICC range: 0.901–0.971. Normative MII percentile tables published across six training-level strata, three age bands, and both genders. Framework reliability substantially exceeds published FMS inter-rater reliability benchmarks (ICC 0.61–0.88). Prescription pathway agreement with independent clinical judgement: kappa = 0.81.

Balanced Progressive Intensity Training (BPIT™) organises all strength and movement exercises into five biomechanically defined intensity lines (Ground-Based, Knee-Level, Standing, Head-Level, Plyometric), each defined by GRF characteristic, neuromuscular demand profile, and target HR zone. The framework was proposed as a resolution to the training-injury paradox through mechanically gated intensity progression. Pilot validation (NCT07296640, n=23) produced promising strength, HRV, and injury-reduction outcomes requiring multi-site confirmation.

To validate the BPIT 5-Line Principle across a multi-site international cohort (NCT07256717, n≥369) for effects on Movement Efficiency Score (MES), Range of Motion, Strength Index, HRV (RMSSD), and knee valgus angle; to confirm pilot findings at scale and across diverse training sites.

Pilot: Prospective single-site interventional (NCT07296640, n=23). Multi-Cohort: Multi-site prospective observational intervention (NCT07256717, n≥369) across BodyGNTX, GFFI India, IIKBS, AIHFT, and BFS-approved sites. Protocol: 5-week BPIT v3.3 (40-minute sessions, 5 days/week, Lines 1–5 progressive exposure). Primary outcomes: MES (0–10 BPIT Observation Scale), ROM (goniometer), Strength Index (Rep × Load), HRV RMSSD, VAS pain, knee valgus angle (video analysis). Statistics: paired t-tests, Cohen's d, mixed-effects modelling for site effects.

Across supervised cohorts (combined n=392): Strength improvements +15–25%; HRV RMSSD +12.67 ms; knee valgus reduction –17.9%; injury incidence 4.3% (one mild strain; no serious adverse events); adherence 94.9%. MES improvement exceeded the pre-specified minimal clinically important difference across all sites. Pilot findings were confirmed and extended in the multi-cohort sample with consistent effect directionality across sites.

The MOVE Protocol (Movement-Oriented Velocity of Engagement) was developed in response to the clinical inadequacy of stage-restricted rehabilitation frameworks that sequence recovery by arbitrary time criteria rather than demonstrated movement quality thresholds. The protocol introduces four mechanistically defined rehabilitation phases: (M) Mobilize Early, (O) Optimize Load, (V) Validate Neural Control, and (E) Elevate Performance — each gated by objective movement quality benchmarks rather than time elapsed.

To evaluate the efficacy, safety, and return-to-activity outcomes of the MOVE Protocol (NCT07220200) in adults with musculoskeletal injury or dysfunction across a multi-site interventional case series; to compare MOVE outcomes with the standard RICE (Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation) protocol in a matched retrospective comparison arm.

Multi-site interventional case series (n=40 MOVE arm) with retrospective matched comparison against standard RICE protocol. Delivered by MMSx-certified movement specialists and sports physiotherapists across GFFI, IIKBS, and AIHFT sites. Phase progression gated by: pain NRS ≤3/10, <24hr flare rule, demonstrated movement control without compensation. Primary outcomes: Return-to-activity time (weeks), NRS pain, AROM, functional movement quality score. Statistics: paired t-tests, Mann-Whitney U for MOVE vs. RICE comparison.

MOVE Protocol participants demonstrated significantly faster return-to-activity compared to matched RICE controls, with superior functional movement quality scores at 4 and 8 weeks. Pain NRS reduction was clinically meaningful at Phase 1–2 transition in >85% of participants. No serious adverse events recorded. Gate-based progression was feasible in multi-site delivery with minimal protocol deviation.

Fatigue-related injury risk elevation is well-documented in the epidemiological literature but mechanistically underspecified. Existing models treat fatigue as a force-reduction phenomenon without characterising how it reorganises the spatial and temporal structure of kinetic chain coordination. The absence of a mechanistic cascade model leaves clinicians and coaches without a systematic framework for identifying where in the kinetic chain fatigue first compromises load-transfer integrity and how that compromise propagates distally.

To propose and justify the Fatigue-Induced Kinetic Chain Cascade (FIKCC) as a three-stage mechanistic model describing the sequential breakdown of kinetic chain coordination under fatigue; to identify clinical monitoring indicators for each stage; and to specify the Compensatory Stiffness Paradox as a novel construct within Stage I mechanics.

Conceptual framework development grounded in evidence synthesis across trunk biomechanics, neuromuscular fatigue, kinetic chain coupling, and GRF-redistribution literature. Three-stage cascade architecture defined via: (1) proximal reserve loss mechanics, (2) coordination breakdown kinetics, (3) distal compensation modelling. Framework falsifiability conditions and monitoring logic specified per stage. 70+ references; integrative synthesis methodology.

FIKCC: Stage I (Proximal Reserve Loss) — reduced trunk stiffness produces “hidden vulnerability” while function is maintained through compensatory mechanisms; Compensatory Stiffness Paradox identified (preserved function conceals escalating injury risk). Stage II (Coordination Breakdown) — pelvic contribution to load transfer diminishes; thoracolumbar compensatory demand increases; spinal loading shifts toward shear-dominant orientation. Stage III (Distal Compensation) — peripheral joints become final recipients of chain failure; distal overload risk escalates non-linearly. The cascade is proposed as a reorganisation of mechanics, not merely force reduction.

Machine learning models for injury risk prediction in biomechanics have achieved acceptable discriminative accuracy but remain largely opaque in clinical terms — unable to identify which kinematic or temporal features drove a given prediction. This black-box limitation restricts clinical adoption, as practitioners require interpretable, actionable feature attribution rather than binary risk scores. SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) offers a theoretically grounded approach to post-hoc explainability in biomechanical ML pipelines.

To develop and validate an explainable AI pipeline integrating markerless pose estimation with SHAP-driven injury risk feature attribution; to identify the biomechanical features with highest SHAP contribution to injury risk classification; and to evaluate whether XAI output is interpretable and actionable by movement professionals without machine learning expertise.

Markerless pose estimation pipeline using TrainersEye Motion Pro. Feature extraction: 14 joint angle time-series, GRF proxy metrics, temporal asymmetry indices across squat, deadlift, and landing tasks. Classification model: gradient boosted tree (XGBoost). SHAP explainability layer applied post-prediction. Outcome: SHAP value distribution per kinematic feature; beeswarm and waterfall plots generated per prediction. Clinical interpretability assessment: expert panel rating (n=12 clinicians).

Preliminary analysis identifies trunk lateral displacement, knee valgus impulse, and hip flexion-to-loading asymmetry ratio as highest SHAP-contributing features to injury risk classification. XAI output rated as “interpretable and actionable” by >80% of clinician panel without ML training. False-positive rate reduced by 18% relative to baseline model through SHAP-guided feature selection. Full results pending validation cohort processing.

Conventional biomechanics models treat muscle force production and joint mechanics as the primary determinants of movement capacity. Fascial anatomy research has progressively demonstrated that myofascial lines — continuous connective tissue networks spanning multiple segments — function as the primary force transmission architecture in the human body. The integration of fascial tensegrity principles with kinematic and GRF analysis remains underdeveloped as a clinical assessment and corrective framework.

To construct a comprehensive 24-chapter scientific monograph series establishing myofascial line-driven movement architecture as a clinical and scientific framework; to reframe movement failure as primarily a sequencing and load-transfer problem mediated by fascial tension distribution rather than isolated muscle weakness; and to integrate tensegrity mechanics with applied biomechanics assessment practice.

Systematic integrative review of fascial anatomy, myofascial line mechanics (Anatomy Trains framework), tensegrity models of skeletal support, and their intersection with GRF biomechanics, kinematic assessment, and clinical movement correction. Each of the 24 chapters addresses a distinct myofascial line or mechanistic concept. Framework validation against published EMG and ultrasound imaging data on fascial force transmission.

24-chapter structure covering: Superficial Back Line, Superficial Front Line, Lateral Line, Spiral Line, Arm Lines (×4), Functional Lines (×2), Deep Front Line, myofascial-to-GRF coupling models, tensegrity and pre-tension mechanics, fascia-mediated load-transfer failure patterns, and clinical corrective sequencing from a myofascial-line perspective. ResearchGate preprint series with DOI archiving via Zenodo planned.

The bench press is one of the most globally performed resistance exercises across strength, powerlifting, rehabilitation, and recreational training contexts. Despite its prevalence, there is no published systematic review synthesising bench press biomechanics from a coaching-applicable and clinically actionable framework perspective. Existing reviews address narrow technical questions (grip width, bar path, shoulder position) in isolation without integrating findings into a coherent assessment and prescription framework.

To conduct a PRISMA 2020-compliant systematic review of bench press biomechanics literature, synthesising findings on bar-path mechanics, joint moment demands, scapular control, shoulder capsule load-management, and leg drive contributions; to derive an evidence-grounded bench press coaching and assessment framework for practitioner application.

PRISMA 2020-compliant systematic review. Electronic database search: PubMed, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL, Google Scholar. Search terms: bench press AND biomechanics / kinematics / kinetics / EMG / injury. Inclusion: peer-reviewed English-language studies reporting biomechanical measurements of the bench press exercise. Exclusion: reviews without primary data, training intervention studies without biomechanical measurement. Quality assessment: modified Downs & Black checklist. Data synthesis: narrative with tabulated evidence summary.

Preliminary database search yields 480+ candidate references for full-text screening. Anticipated final inclusion: 35–55 studies. Key synthesis domains: bar path optimisation, grip-width biomechanics, shoulder internal rotation and capsule loading, scapular retraction and serratus anterior demands, arch mechanics and thoracic extension, leg drive GRF contributions, fatigue-induced technique breakdown. Framework output: BOST (Bench Press Optimal Sequencing and Technique) coaching protocol.